3.1-I
I. Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, and expanded the geographical range of existing and newly active trade networks.
This part of the key concept refers to the new technologies and agricultural techniques that were made during this period in time. The abundance of these items allowed for a development in trade processes further strengthening preexisting trade routes as well as allowing for the creation of newer trade routes that began to gain some relevance.
A. The four existing trade routes (Silk Road, Mediterranean Network, Trans-Saharan Network, and Indian Ocean Network) were still in use throughout this period, but all of them experienced some kind of change. For example, the Silk Road trade had declined due to the fall of the Classical empires of China, India, and Rome. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Silk Roads once again became a prominent route for trade. Sharia Law, which gave protection to merchants, was established across Dar-al-Islam. Merchants from all over took advantage of the situation and Islamic courts and qadis also helped to solve legal and trade disputes. While the Abbasid Caliphate began the process of reinvigorating trade on the Silk Roads by protecting merchants, the Mongol Empire had an even larger effect on trade. After the Mongols conquered the Abbasid empire and took control of the areas they controlled, they instituted a harsh set of punishments, known as Yassa, to anyone disturbing trade. This gave merchants all over a sense of safety and allowed them to trade much easier. With the Silk Road running again, some important technologies were diffused such as paper and gunpowder along with the techniques on how to make them. However, technology wasn't the only thing diffused by the Silk Roads. Disease was also passed along the Silk Road with the most prominent being the Bubonic Plague, or Black Death. Another trade route that was changed was the Mediterranean Trade Network. During the decline of the Roman Empire the Mediterranean Trade Network began to lose some of its prominence. However, thanks to the Byzantine Empire, the trade network managed to regain its importance. As with most of the trade routes during this time period, Islamic influence, or more specifically Sharia Law, helped merchants on this route feel more secure. One example of a route that did not have much prominence prior to this period is the Trans-Saharan Network. These routes were once again influenced by Islam, but rather than the Abbasid Caliphate, it was their predecessors the Umayyad Caliphate. During this time, Islam spread to the northern parts of Africa and reinvigorated trade. Caravans that crossed the Sahara increased trades in gold, salt, ivory, and slaves. These routes also helped to spread Islam to Sub-Saharan portions of Africa. Throughout all these changes though, the Indian Ocean Network was still the dominant network in the post-classical time period. This network was ocean based therefore it had to adjust to environmental conditions such as monsoon winds. Heavier more bulky goods such as timber, spices, and exotic animals were traded along this route because the products were easier to transport over water, and because the ocean was open to all merchants and governed by a single empire. New maritime technology also increased the volume of trade along this trade route. The Chinese introduced the compass and new ships calls junks which were able to carry large amounts of goods. Also, the Arabs introducing a ship called Dhow which used triangular lateen sails which could catch the wind easier. The last invention was the astrolabe which allowed people at sea to determine their latitude. All these new maritime technologies increased trade, allowed for better navigation, and removed some of the dangers of ocean travel.
B. Trade routes in the Americas flourished during the classical period as well. Mesoamerica and the Andes regions had developed trans-regional trade routes using a system of roads. The Incas built a road system that stretched over 25,000 miles. The Amerindians used this road and other routes to trade items such as gems, exotic bird feathers, and cacao beans as far as New Mexico and Arizona.
C. During the post-classical period a number of factors contributed to the increase in trade of high value luxury items. The restoration of centralized imperial rule in China, the creation of the Mongol Khanates and Islamic caliphates and their protection of merchant trade helped make travel safer and trade in luxury goods easier. Technological innovations also helped this surge in luxury items as these changes made certain luxury goods more available and more desirable. For example, during the Tang Dynasty the Chinese refined their pottery production techniques which resulted in larger quantities of a thinner and lighter product called porcelain. Chinese porcelain was traded all along the trade routes from Persia to Africa and India. Nomadic people also helped the increase in trade. As people became more familiar with the the routes, nomadic people created stopping points to offer services to merchants such as providing food, water, guidance and a place to rest. Eventually this led to the creation of inns for weary travelers called caravanserai. The use of camels as the vehicle to transport these goods also helped the increase in luxury goods. Camels could walk for long distances without water and could carry heavy loads when fitted with a special saddle. Finally the development of banks and the invention of of various forms of credit also facilitated trade in luxury items.The Chinese came up with "flying money" and the Europeans developed bills of exchange. Both of the these methods allowed merchants to leave their heavy currency money in banks and pay for goods and taxes with documents similar to checks.
D. Another way trade increased during the post classical period was through the creation of a common form of currency or payment to replace the barter system that they used previously. The Chinese used copper and brass coins and paper currency throughout their empire. This reduced the risk of theft on the trade route and also reduced the amount of heavy currency that had to be hauled around. Empires also took on labor projects to increase trade. The Chinese built the Grand Canal as a way to connect a number of smaller canals to make trade between the northern and southern portions of the empires. individual cities throughout western Eurasia formed regional trade agreements, and western Europeans formed the Hanseatic League to serve the same purpose. The Hansetic league protected the trade between its member cities.
E. As empires expanded and added conquered areas and people into their economies, Trans-Eurasian trade and communication became much easier. Examples of this expansion and trade relationship can be seen in the existing Chinese, Byzantine, and Islamic empires and creation of the new Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan. During the Tang Dynasty the Chinese Empire expanded to the west to include the area to the Aral Sea, to the north adding Manchuria and Korea, and to the south adding north Vietnam. As the empire grew the Chinese gained full control of the western trade routes, and conquered people began moving into Chinese cities. These new people helped to increase trade by serving as conduits of trade with people back in their native homelands. Byzantine expansion had a similar effect by linking cities such as Alexandria with the Byzantine capital of Constantinople which broadened the groups of people participating in trade. Under the Umayyad Caliphs, the Islamic Empire expanded from India to the Atlantic Ocean. As new areas were added into the Dar al Islam, the Muslim positive position on trade along with a protective legal system were adopted and helped to expand trade. Banks and lines of credit were invented and Muslim merchants eventually traveled as far as Russia and Scandinavia.
This part of the key concept refers to the new technologies and agricultural techniques that were made during this period in time. The abundance of these items allowed for a development in trade processes further strengthening preexisting trade routes as well as allowing for the creation of newer trade routes that began to gain some relevance.
A. The four existing trade routes (Silk Road, Mediterranean Network, Trans-Saharan Network, and Indian Ocean Network) were still in use throughout this period, but all of them experienced some kind of change. For example, the Silk Road trade had declined due to the fall of the Classical empires of China, India, and Rome. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Silk Roads once again became a prominent route for trade. Sharia Law, which gave protection to merchants, was established across Dar-al-Islam. Merchants from all over took advantage of the situation and Islamic courts and qadis also helped to solve legal and trade disputes. While the Abbasid Caliphate began the process of reinvigorating trade on the Silk Roads by protecting merchants, the Mongol Empire had an even larger effect on trade. After the Mongols conquered the Abbasid empire and took control of the areas they controlled, they instituted a harsh set of punishments, known as Yassa, to anyone disturbing trade. This gave merchants all over a sense of safety and allowed them to trade much easier. With the Silk Road running again, some important technologies were diffused such as paper and gunpowder along with the techniques on how to make them. However, technology wasn't the only thing diffused by the Silk Roads. Disease was also passed along the Silk Road with the most prominent being the Bubonic Plague, or Black Death. Another trade route that was changed was the Mediterranean Trade Network. During the decline of the Roman Empire the Mediterranean Trade Network began to lose some of its prominence. However, thanks to the Byzantine Empire, the trade network managed to regain its importance. As with most of the trade routes during this time period, Islamic influence, or more specifically Sharia Law, helped merchants on this route feel more secure. One example of a route that did not have much prominence prior to this period is the Trans-Saharan Network. These routes were once again influenced by Islam, but rather than the Abbasid Caliphate, it was their predecessors the Umayyad Caliphate. During this time, Islam spread to the northern parts of Africa and reinvigorated trade. Caravans that crossed the Sahara increased trades in gold, salt, ivory, and slaves. These routes also helped to spread Islam to Sub-Saharan portions of Africa. Throughout all these changes though, the Indian Ocean Network was still the dominant network in the post-classical time period. This network was ocean based therefore it had to adjust to environmental conditions such as monsoon winds. Heavier more bulky goods such as timber, spices, and exotic animals were traded along this route because the products were easier to transport over water, and because the ocean was open to all merchants and governed by a single empire. New maritime technology also increased the volume of trade along this trade route. The Chinese introduced the compass and new ships calls junks which were able to carry large amounts of goods. Also, the Arabs introducing a ship called Dhow which used triangular lateen sails which could catch the wind easier. The last invention was the astrolabe which allowed people at sea to determine their latitude. All these new maritime technologies increased trade, allowed for better navigation, and removed some of the dangers of ocean travel.
B. Trade routes in the Americas flourished during the classical period as well. Mesoamerica and the Andes regions had developed trans-regional trade routes using a system of roads. The Incas built a road system that stretched over 25,000 miles. The Amerindians used this road and other routes to trade items such as gems, exotic bird feathers, and cacao beans as far as New Mexico and Arizona.
C. During the post-classical period a number of factors contributed to the increase in trade of high value luxury items. The restoration of centralized imperial rule in China, the creation of the Mongol Khanates and Islamic caliphates and their protection of merchant trade helped make travel safer and trade in luxury goods easier. Technological innovations also helped this surge in luxury items as these changes made certain luxury goods more available and more desirable. For example, during the Tang Dynasty the Chinese refined their pottery production techniques which resulted in larger quantities of a thinner and lighter product called porcelain. Chinese porcelain was traded all along the trade routes from Persia to Africa and India. Nomadic people also helped the increase in trade. As people became more familiar with the the routes, nomadic people created stopping points to offer services to merchants such as providing food, water, guidance and a place to rest. Eventually this led to the creation of inns for weary travelers called caravanserai. The use of camels as the vehicle to transport these goods also helped the increase in luxury goods. Camels could walk for long distances without water and could carry heavy loads when fitted with a special saddle. Finally the development of banks and the invention of of various forms of credit also facilitated trade in luxury items.The Chinese came up with "flying money" and the Europeans developed bills of exchange. Both of the these methods allowed merchants to leave their heavy currency money in banks and pay for goods and taxes with documents similar to checks.
D. Another way trade increased during the post classical period was through the creation of a common form of currency or payment to replace the barter system that they used previously. The Chinese used copper and brass coins and paper currency throughout their empire. This reduced the risk of theft on the trade route and also reduced the amount of heavy currency that had to be hauled around. Empires also took on labor projects to increase trade. The Chinese built the Grand Canal as a way to connect a number of smaller canals to make trade between the northern and southern portions of the empires. individual cities throughout western Eurasia formed regional trade agreements, and western Europeans formed the Hanseatic League to serve the same purpose. The Hansetic league protected the trade between its member cities.
E. As empires expanded and added conquered areas and people into their economies, Trans-Eurasian trade and communication became much easier. Examples of this expansion and trade relationship can be seen in the existing Chinese, Byzantine, and Islamic empires and creation of the new Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan. During the Tang Dynasty the Chinese Empire expanded to the west to include the area to the Aral Sea, to the north adding Manchuria and Korea, and to the south adding north Vietnam. As the empire grew the Chinese gained full control of the western trade routes, and conquered people began moving into Chinese cities. These new people helped to increase trade by serving as conduits of trade with people back in their native homelands. Byzantine expansion had a similar effect by linking cities such as Alexandria with the Byzantine capital of Constantinople which broadened the groups of people participating in trade. Under the Umayyad Caliphs, the Islamic Empire expanded from India to the Atlantic Ocean. As new areas were added into the Dar al Islam, the Muslim positive position on trade along with a protective legal system were adopted and helped to expand trade. Banks and lines of credit were invented and Muslim merchants eventually traveled as far as Russia and Scandinavia.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Astrolabe
2. Dhow
3. Junks
4. Compass
5. Lateen Sail
Evidence
"Overland trade traveled mostly by camel caravan. Although they are unpleasant and often uncooperative beasts, camels endure the rigors of desert travel much better than oxen, horses, or donkeys. Moreover, when fitted with a well-designed saddle, camels can carry heavy loads" (Bentley 361).
This is a picture of the different trade routes in the post classical period. With the new inventions they helped trade and increased trade.
3.1-II
II. The movement of peoples caused environmental and linguistic effects.
This part of the key concept highlights the different technologies that influenced different peoples and also had many environmental effects. Also, the movement of people caused many different languages to diffuse.
A. Technological adaptations helped different peoples overcome environmental conditions and geographic barriers to expand long distance trade routes. The Vikings, the Arabs/Berbers, and the Nomads of Central Asia are three examples of peoples who used their environmental understanding and technical adaptations for expansion. The Vikings built and sailed shallow boats with sails called longboats that could easily cross oceans as well as navigate rivers and estuaries. The Vikings left Scandinavia and traveled to the Shetland Islands, the Faeroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and even the coast of North America. The established agricultural communities in each of these places. Eventually the Vikings used their seafaring skills to travel inland to cities such as Paris, Hamburg, and Constantinople to raid and plunder. Despite their raiding they linked several regional trading places in Eurasia. The Arabs and Berbers and their understanding of their desert environment adapted camels as a means of transportation. Since camels had the ability to go weeks without water and they also had the ability to close their nostrils in a sandstorm which made them a perfect way to facilitate trade. Like the camel the introduction of the horse into Central Asia greatly benefited the economy of the Nomads in Central Asia. These pastoral people found horses to be much more effective in herding animals and providing food. They adapted the horse to speed up trade in Central Asia and as a result of increased trade technologies, crops, religions, and pathogens spread quicker across Eurasia.
B. As people migrated to new areas they took their tools and crops with them. The introduction of these new tools and crops had a significant environmental impact. The environmental effect can best be seen through the migrations of the Bantu people in Africa and the Polynesian peoples. The Bantu understood iron metallurgy and had incorporated bananas into their diets. As they migrated into sub-Saharan Africa and diffused their understanding of metal technology, iron tools were absorbed into new societies and greatly increased agricultural production. Similarly, introduction of the banana became a new staple to many diets. Both of the use of iron and bananas had the effect of stimulating population growth throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The Bantu people brought different agricultural techniques such as terracing, and the use of cattle to prepare land for planting. Another migration was that of the Polynesian people across the pacific ocean. As these people moved from island to island they introduced new animals and crops to these places. As populations grew, the animals and additional people put pressure on the environmental resources and destroyed much of the indigenous flora and fauna.
C. During this time period the movement of people led to the diffusion of languages. The Bantu migrations to Africa influenced many languages and in the Bantu language family there are over 300 different languages. People believe that Swahili is a blend of Bantu with Arabic because many Islamic merchants traveled to Africa for trade and for profit. The Arabic and Persian spread because of the diffusion of the Islam. People wanted to understand the Qua-ran and to do that they had to first understand Arabic. Additionally as merchants traveled to different ports they brought their native language with them such as Arabic and Persian.
This part of the key concept highlights the different technologies that influenced different peoples and also had many environmental effects. Also, the movement of people caused many different languages to diffuse.
A. Technological adaptations helped different peoples overcome environmental conditions and geographic barriers to expand long distance trade routes. The Vikings, the Arabs/Berbers, and the Nomads of Central Asia are three examples of peoples who used their environmental understanding and technical adaptations for expansion. The Vikings built and sailed shallow boats with sails called longboats that could easily cross oceans as well as navigate rivers and estuaries. The Vikings left Scandinavia and traveled to the Shetland Islands, the Faeroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and even the coast of North America. The established agricultural communities in each of these places. Eventually the Vikings used their seafaring skills to travel inland to cities such as Paris, Hamburg, and Constantinople to raid and plunder. Despite their raiding they linked several regional trading places in Eurasia. The Arabs and Berbers and their understanding of their desert environment adapted camels as a means of transportation. Since camels had the ability to go weeks without water and they also had the ability to close their nostrils in a sandstorm which made them a perfect way to facilitate trade. Like the camel the introduction of the horse into Central Asia greatly benefited the economy of the Nomads in Central Asia. These pastoral people found horses to be much more effective in herding animals and providing food. They adapted the horse to speed up trade in Central Asia and as a result of increased trade technologies, crops, religions, and pathogens spread quicker across Eurasia.
B. As people migrated to new areas they took their tools and crops with them. The introduction of these new tools and crops had a significant environmental impact. The environmental effect can best be seen through the migrations of the Bantu people in Africa and the Polynesian peoples. The Bantu understood iron metallurgy and had incorporated bananas into their diets. As they migrated into sub-Saharan Africa and diffused their understanding of metal technology, iron tools were absorbed into new societies and greatly increased agricultural production. Similarly, introduction of the banana became a new staple to many diets. Both of the use of iron and bananas had the effect of stimulating population growth throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The Bantu people brought different agricultural techniques such as terracing, and the use of cattle to prepare land for planting. Another migration was that of the Polynesian people across the pacific ocean. As these people moved from island to island they introduced new animals and crops to these places. As populations grew, the animals and additional people put pressure on the environmental resources and destroyed much of the indigenous flora and fauna.
C. During this time period the movement of people led to the diffusion of languages. The Bantu migrations to Africa influenced many languages and in the Bantu language family there are over 300 different languages. People believe that Swahili is a blend of Bantu with Arabic because many Islamic merchants traveled to Africa for trade and for profit. The Arabic and Persian spread because of the diffusion of the Islam. People wanted to understand the Qua-ran and to do that they had to first understand Arabic. Additionally as merchants traveled to different ports they brought their native language with them such as Arabic and Persian.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Long ship
2. Camels
3.
4.
5.
Evidence
"As Bantu populations surged however, it became increasingly difficult for foragers to flourish. Some forest peoples joined the cultivators and effectively integrated into Bantu society. Others retreated into the forests, where they were able to sustain small scale societies..." (Bentley 485).
This is a picture of Easter Island which the Polynesian people migrated to. On the Island they took out most of the vegetation changing the the environment as they went along.
3.1-III
III. Cross-cultural exchanges were fostered by the intensification of existing, or the creation of new, networks of trade and communication.
A. Muhammad started having visions and these visions turned into the teachings and these teachings were turned into the Qur-an or the holy book of Islam. Muhammad established the five pillars of Islam which were making daily prayer, making at least one pilgrimage to mecca, giving money to charity, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and recognizing that Allah is the only true god. Islam was influenced by many other religions that made their way into Arabia, for example Zoroastrianism influenced Islam. Islam also spread for its original location into Byzantine provinces, North Africa, and even into Iberia. Islam began with a strong basis on trading, and the annual pilgrimages to mecca helped merchant sell items and find trading partners. Through these commercial practices Islam spread from India to Indonesia and Muslim merchants took the faith to the Philippines. Trans-Saharan trade was the means by which Islam spread to Sub-Saharan Africa. Besides military conquests and merchant activities, Sufi's also spread the religion. "It placed mystical experiences of God over doctrinal purity." Sufi missionaries experienced the most success to make convert among the Turks and in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sufism played a large role in the spreading Islam across Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
B. Another example of cross-cultural exchanges during this time was the rise of disporic merchant communities. These communities were people from a common culture living together outside their original homes or towns. They formed in ports, cities, and other important locations along major trade routes, and one example is the communities of Jews living in Muslim Cairo. Diasporic communities provided links to traveling merchants visiting foreign lands. It was inevitable that diasporic merchant enclaves would migrate into the host societies. When a Chinese merchant community settled in Nagasaki Japan, they recruited Buddhist monks from their homeland to join them.
C. The diaries so to speak of famous travelers tell of the integration of Eurasia trade routes in this era. Although the travelers stories might not be accurate in every detail, the journals of a Muslim pilgrim, a Catholic merchant, and a Buddhist monk provide rich information about inter-regional networks of trade as well as the limitations people often have in understanding cultures different than their own. Ibn Battuta made a haj to mecca but later his travels took him way out of the way from his journey and his journey was made possible due to a network of hostels and schools across the Muslim land.
D. This sub part tells of increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions, as well as scientific and technological innovations. An example of the diffusion of culture would be the spread of christianity throughout Europe, and also the spread of Islam into Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Examples of different scientific and technological advances include the diffusion of printing and gunpowder technology form East Asai into the Islamic empires and western Europe, also the infulence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars.
A. Muhammad started having visions and these visions turned into the teachings and these teachings were turned into the Qur-an or the holy book of Islam. Muhammad established the five pillars of Islam which were making daily prayer, making at least one pilgrimage to mecca, giving money to charity, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and recognizing that Allah is the only true god. Islam was influenced by many other religions that made their way into Arabia, for example Zoroastrianism influenced Islam. Islam also spread for its original location into Byzantine provinces, North Africa, and even into Iberia. Islam began with a strong basis on trading, and the annual pilgrimages to mecca helped merchant sell items and find trading partners. Through these commercial practices Islam spread from India to Indonesia and Muslim merchants took the faith to the Philippines. Trans-Saharan trade was the means by which Islam spread to Sub-Saharan Africa. Besides military conquests and merchant activities, Sufi's also spread the religion. "It placed mystical experiences of God over doctrinal purity." Sufi missionaries experienced the most success to make convert among the Turks and in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sufism played a large role in the spreading Islam across Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
B. Another example of cross-cultural exchanges during this time was the rise of disporic merchant communities. These communities were people from a common culture living together outside their original homes or towns. They formed in ports, cities, and other important locations along major trade routes, and one example is the communities of Jews living in Muslim Cairo. Diasporic communities provided links to traveling merchants visiting foreign lands. It was inevitable that diasporic merchant enclaves would migrate into the host societies. When a Chinese merchant community settled in Nagasaki Japan, they recruited Buddhist monks from their homeland to join them.
C. The diaries so to speak of famous travelers tell of the integration of Eurasia trade routes in this era. Although the travelers stories might not be accurate in every detail, the journals of a Muslim pilgrim, a Catholic merchant, and a Buddhist monk provide rich information about inter-regional networks of trade as well as the limitations people often have in understanding cultures different than their own. Ibn Battuta made a haj to mecca but later his travels took him way out of the way from his journey and his journey was made possible due to a network of hostels and schools across the Muslim land.
D. This sub part tells of increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions, as well as scientific and technological innovations. An example of the diffusion of culture would be the spread of christianity throughout Europe, and also the spread of Islam into Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Examples of different scientific and technological advances include the diffusion of printing and gunpowder technology form East Asai into the Islamic empires and western Europe, also the infulence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Islam
2. Sufi's or Sufism
3. Diaspora or Diasporic merchants
4. Printing
5. Gun powder
Evidence
Muslim scholars quickly absorbed those Greek traditions, combined them with influences from India, and used them all as points of departure for their studies. The result was a brilliant flowering of mathematical, scientific, and medical scholarship that provided Muslim societies with powerful tools for understanding the natural world" (Bentley 370)
Islam expanded throughout the post classical period through trade and other interactions of people of different societies.
3.1-IV
IV The fourth subheading of 3.1 tells that there was a continued diffusion of crops and pathogens, including epidemic diseases like the bubonic plague, along trade routes. The diffusin of crops include the banana by Bantu people into Africa as well as new varities of rice in East Asia.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Bubonic Plague or Black Death pg 476
2. Sugarcane
3. Bananas
4. Fast ripening rice
5. Asian Yams pg 484
Evidence
"By facilitating trade and communication throughout Eurasia, the Mongols unwittingly expedited the spread of bubonic plague" (Bentley 476).
This image shows the diffusion of crops between the Polynesian and the Mesoamerican peoples along the pacific ocean trade routes.
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Primary Documents
1. These documents describe various perspectives on one of the earliest Viking attacks on Lindisfarne. The monastery of St. Cuthbert on Lidisfarne was a holy place of pilgrimage to the Britains. Pious pilgrims left expensive things on the altar and as such it was a temptation to the Vikings.
"Here Beorhtric [AD 786-802] took King Offa's daughter Eadburh. And in his days there came for the first time 3 ships; and then the reeve rode there and wanted to compel them to go to the king's town, because he did not know what they were; and they killed him. Those were the first ships of the Danish men which sought out the land of the English race."
--Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Winchester MS)
Such is the entry for AD 789, written by the chronicler a hundred years later. The king's reeve is said to have ridden to the harbor at Portland on the southwest coast of England, thinking the strangers to be traders whom he then would escort to the royal manor at Dorchester. (Even though the chronicler identifies the raiders as Danes, the term, like Northmen, was used generically to signify all Scandinavian invaders. The early Vikings tended to be Norwegian, although it was the Danes, who began their pillaging in AD 835, from whom the English suffered the most.)
A few years later, there is another entry, even more ominous, this time for AD 793.
"Here terrible portents came about over the land of Northumbria, and miserably frightened the people: these were immense flashes of lightening, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the air. A great famine immediately followed these signs; and a little after that in the same year on 8 June the raiding of heathen men miserably devastated God's church in Lindisfarne island by looting and slaughter."
--Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Petersborough MS)
"Here Beorhtric [AD 786-802] took King Offa's daughter Eadburh. And in his days there came for the first time 3 ships; and then the reeve rode there and wanted to compel them to go to the king's town, because he did not know what they were; and they killed him. Those were the first ships of the Danish men which sought out the land of the English race."
--Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Winchester MS)
Such is the entry for AD 789, written by the chronicler a hundred years later. The king's reeve is said to have ridden to the harbor at Portland on the southwest coast of England, thinking the strangers to be traders whom he then would escort to the royal manor at Dorchester. (Even though the chronicler identifies the raiders as Danes, the term, like Northmen, was used generically to signify all Scandinavian invaders. The early Vikings tended to be Norwegian, although it was the Danes, who began their pillaging in AD 835, from whom the English suffered the most.)
A few years later, there is another entry, even more ominous, this time for AD 793.
"Here terrible portents came about over the land of Northumbria, and miserably frightened the people: these were immense flashes of lightening, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the air. A great famine immediately followed these signs; and a little after that in the same year on 8 June the raiding of heathen men miserably devastated God's church in Lindisfarne island by looting and slaughter."
--Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Petersborough MS)
2. This document is another perspective on the attack at Lindsfarne. Alcuin was a scholar who taught in the Carolingian palace school and lateer became an abbot at St. Martin's at Tours when he retired. After the Vikings attacked Lindsfarne, he sent this letter to Bishop Higbald who was at the monastery at the time.
To Bishop Higbald and the whole community of the church of Lindisfarne, good sons in Christ of a most blessed father, the holy Bishop Cuthbert, Alcuin, a deacon, sends greeting and blessing in Christ.
When I was with you your loving friendship gave me great joy. Now that I am away your tragic sufferings daily bring me sorrow, since the pagans have desecrated God's sanctuary, shed the blood of saints around the altar, laid waste the house of our hope and trampled the bodies of the saints like dung in the street. I can only cry from my heart before Christ's altar: "O Lord, spare thy people and do not give the Gentiles thine inheritance, lest the heathen say, 'Where is the God of the Christians?'"
What assurance can the churches of Britain have, if Saint Cuthbert and so great a company of saints do not defend their own? Is this the beginning of the great suffering, or the outcome of the sins of those who live there? It has not happened by chance, but is the sign of some great guilt.
You who survive, stand like men, fight bravely and defend the camp of God. Remember how Judas Maccabaeus cleansed the Temple and freed the people from a foreign yoke. If anything needs correction in your way of gentleness, correct it quickly. Recall your patrons who left you for a season. It was not that they lacked influence with God, but they were silent, we know not why.
Do not glory in the vanity of dress; that is cause for shame, not boasting, in priests and servants of God. Do not blur the words of your prayers by drunkenness. Do not go out after the indulgences of the flesh and the greed of the world, but stand firm in the service of God and the discipline of the monastic life, that the holy fathers whose sons you are may not cease to protect you. May you remain safe through their prayers, as you walk in their footsteps. Do not be degenerate sons, having such fathers. They will not cease protecting you, if they see you following their example.
Do not be dismayed by this disaster. God chastises every son whom he accepts, so perhaps he has chastised you more because he loves you more. Jerusalem, a city loved by God was destroyed, with the Temple of God, in Babylonian flames. Rome, surrounded by its company of holy apostles and countless martyrs, was devastated by the heathen, but quickly recovered through the goodness of God. Almost the whole of Europe has been denuded with fire and sword by Goths and Huns, but now by God's mercy is as bright with churches as the sky with stars and in them the offices of the Christian religion grow and flourish. Encourage each other, saying, "Let us return to the Lord our God, for he is very forgiving and never deserts those who hope in him."
And you, holy father, leader of God's people, shepherd of a holy flock, physician of souls, light set on a candle-stick, be a model of all goodness to all who can see you, a herald of salvation to all who hear you. May your community be of exemplary character, to bring others to life, not to damnation. Let your dinners be sober, not drunken. Let your clothes befit your station. Do not copy the men of the world in vanity, for vain dress and useless adornment are a reproach to you before men and a sin before God. It is better to dress your immortal soul in good ways than to deck with fine clothes the body that soon rots in dust. Clothe and feed Christ in the poor, that so doing you may reign with Christ. Redemption is a man's true riches. If we loved gold we should send it to heaven to be kept there for us. We have what we love: let us love the eternal which will not perish. Let us love the true, not the transitory, riches. Let us win praise with God, not man. Let us do as the! saints whom we praise. Let us follow in their footsteps on earth, to be worthy to share their glory in heaven. May divine goodness keep you from all adversity and bring you, dear brothers, to the glory of the heavenly kingdom with your fathers. When our lord King Charles returns from defeating his enemies, by God's mercy, I plan to go to him, and if I can then do anything for you about the boys who have been carried off by the pagans as prisoners or about any other of your needs, I shall make every effort to see that it is done.
Fare well, beloved in Christ, and be ever strengthened in well-doing.
To Bishop Higbald and the whole community of the church of Lindisfarne, good sons in Christ of a most blessed father, the holy Bishop Cuthbert, Alcuin, a deacon, sends greeting and blessing in Christ.
When I was with you your loving friendship gave me great joy. Now that I am away your tragic sufferings daily bring me sorrow, since the pagans have desecrated God's sanctuary, shed the blood of saints around the altar, laid waste the house of our hope and trampled the bodies of the saints like dung in the street. I can only cry from my heart before Christ's altar: "O Lord, spare thy people and do not give the Gentiles thine inheritance, lest the heathen say, 'Where is the God of the Christians?'"
What assurance can the churches of Britain have, if Saint Cuthbert and so great a company of saints do not defend their own? Is this the beginning of the great suffering, or the outcome of the sins of those who live there? It has not happened by chance, but is the sign of some great guilt.
You who survive, stand like men, fight bravely and defend the camp of God. Remember how Judas Maccabaeus cleansed the Temple and freed the people from a foreign yoke. If anything needs correction in your way of gentleness, correct it quickly. Recall your patrons who left you for a season. It was not that they lacked influence with God, but they were silent, we know not why.
Do not glory in the vanity of dress; that is cause for shame, not boasting, in priests and servants of God. Do not blur the words of your prayers by drunkenness. Do not go out after the indulgences of the flesh and the greed of the world, but stand firm in the service of God and the discipline of the monastic life, that the holy fathers whose sons you are may not cease to protect you. May you remain safe through their prayers, as you walk in their footsteps. Do not be degenerate sons, having such fathers. They will not cease protecting you, if they see you following their example.
Do not be dismayed by this disaster. God chastises every son whom he accepts, so perhaps he has chastised you more because he loves you more. Jerusalem, a city loved by God was destroyed, with the Temple of God, in Babylonian flames. Rome, surrounded by its company of holy apostles and countless martyrs, was devastated by the heathen, but quickly recovered through the goodness of God. Almost the whole of Europe has been denuded with fire and sword by Goths and Huns, but now by God's mercy is as bright with churches as the sky with stars and in them the offices of the Christian religion grow and flourish. Encourage each other, saying, "Let us return to the Lord our God, for he is very forgiving and never deserts those who hope in him."
And you, holy father, leader of God's people, shepherd of a holy flock, physician of souls, light set on a candle-stick, be a model of all goodness to all who can see you, a herald of salvation to all who hear you. May your community be of exemplary character, to bring others to life, not to damnation. Let your dinners be sober, not drunken. Let your clothes befit your station. Do not copy the men of the world in vanity, for vain dress and useless adornment are a reproach to you before men and a sin before God. It is better to dress your immortal soul in good ways than to deck with fine clothes the body that soon rots in dust. Clothe and feed Christ in the poor, that so doing you may reign with Christ. Redemption is a man's true riches. If we loved gold we should send it to heaven to be kept there for us. We have what we love: let us love the eternal which will not perish. Let us love the true, not the transitory, riches. Let us win praise with God, not man. Let us do as the! saints whom we praise. Let us follow in their footsteps on earth, to be worthy to share their glory in heaven. May divine goodness keep you from all adversity and bring you, dear brothers, to the glory of the heavenly kingdom with your fathers. When our lord King Charles returns from defeating his enemies, by God's mercy, I plan to go to him, and if I can then do anything for you about the boys who have been carried off by the pagans as prisoners or about any other of your needs, I shall make every effort to see that it is done.
Fare well, beloved in Christ, and be ever strengthened in well-doing.