2.2 The Development of States and Empires
As empires started to grow in size and power they competed for much of the same resources and constantly came into contact with one another. As empires started to grow and become more powerful the result was the empires expanding their boundaries. The empires encompassed many societies with different cultures and religions. As a result they needed groups of military and political elites to manage the empire. As empires expanded too far it started becoming a problem, managing the empire as a whole and they created political cultural and administrative difficulties. There was also the problem of redistributing land to the privileged classes and the over-use of land.
This is a map of the kingdoms and societies in this period.
2.2-I
As empires were expanding they brought states under their control into large empire with one single ruler. The Roman empire was divided into many governmental zones which led to the creating of a western Latin empire and eastern Greek portion as well. Also, the Achaemenid empire the first Persian empire under the rule of Cyrus the Great went to establish a centralized state. At the empire's peak it held present day Iran, and Iraq, Syria, Israel, Anatolia, parts of Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, most of Central Asia, and Macedonia.
A. Instead of loose states competing with each other there was one rule. Empires include those of Southwest Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Mediterranean region, Mesoamerica, Andean South America, and North America. (Know the names of the empires in these regions). With some of these empires especially the empire of Alexander the Great even though he conquered all these great land he never put in place a legal system. Though others were so large that they encompassed many cultural diverse regions that spoke different languages and there was a need to regional administration such as the Achaemenid empire with the Satrapies.
A. Instead of loose states competing with each other there was one rule. Empires include those of Southwest Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Mediterranean region, Mesoamerica, Andean South America, and North America. (Know the names of the empires in these regions). With some of these empires especially the empire of Alexander the Great even though he conquered all these great land he never put in place a legal system. Though others were so large that they encompassed many cultural diverse regions that spoke different languages and there was a need to regional administration such as the Achaemenid empire with the Satrapies.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire was the first Persian empire in Southwest Asia. This empire flourished under Cyrus the Great and his grandson Darius. Under Darius satraps were established, he issued standardized coins, built roads, organized a courier service, and undertook public work projects.
2. Qin Shihuangdi
The first emperor Qin Shihuangdi ruled the Qin dynasty but he didn't know it would only last 14 years. Qin Sihuangdi ruled from the Qin capital at Xianyang with a centralized bureaucracy. During this time he built roads, built defensive walls, and burned books. Also during his rule he standardized laws, currencies, weights, and measures of China. He promoted a standardized script throughout China and pointed them in the path to political and cultural peace.
3. Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya who was the first to bring a centralized and unified rule to Most of India. Later Chandragupta left the throne and his son took over, then his grandson Ashoka took over. Ashoka encouraged agriculture which flourished, he encouraged trade, and built roads.
4. Macedonian Empire
King Phillip II of Macedon built a powerful military and used it to conquer Greece and prepared to launch an invasion on Persia. After his death his son Alexander the Great, took over. Alexander picked up where his father left off conquered many lands all the way to India eventually establishing himself as the new Persian emperor. At his untimely death Alexander had no government in place for the large region he had acquired and later the land was divided into three parts by his generals.
5. The Maya
The Maya were the successors of The Olmecs. They lived in the region now occupied by southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. They built terraces to help the agriculture in the lowlands. Also, they built ceremonial centers all with pyramids, palaces, and temples. Their most important political center was Tikal which housed The Temple of the Giant Jaguar. Tikal was the largest of their small city-kingdoms. The Maya promoted the arts and sciences. The city of Chichen Itza was the only city to establish peace unlike the rest of the Mayan Kingdoms.
Evidence
"During the Period of the Warring States, rulers of several regional states adopted elements of the Legalist program. Legalist doctrines met the most enthusiastic response in the state of Qin, in western China, where Shang Yang and Han Feizi oversaw oversaw the implementation of Legalist policies. The Qin state soon dominated its neighbors and imposed centralized rule throughout China" (Bently 189).
This quote is saying that with the implementation of Legalism and the Qin empire conquering its fellow kingdoms there was unity throughout China.
This quote is saying that with the implementation of Legalism and the Qin empire conquering its fellow kingdoms there was unity throughout China.
In this map it shows the regional kingdoms of the warring states period before and after the takeover of the Qin empire. This empire brought temporary unification to China through emperor Qin Shihuangdi.
2.2-II
Empires established their governments borrowing the successes of other forms of governments of those who come before them. Drawing the success from their predecessors the empires in the classical age were able to centralize power and rule over large areas.
A. To effectively retain authority over the large areas that these empires controlled, the rulers created centralized governments, legal systems and bureaucracies. With the empires expanding their regions are becoming more diverse ruling them became harder. One method put in place was centralized government, which is when the decisions are made by one executive power. This single person or group usually ruled from a capital in the empire. Also in the empires was decentralized government which is what the Gupta empire had and also the Zhou dynasty.This policy allows more control and decision making too be made by local provinces or counties.
After the Zhou dynasty fell China went into the Warring States Period. In this period came the basis for Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism. This period only ended when Qin Shihuangdi of the Qin dynasty made the legalist doctrine, and destroyed regional authority this united China for a short time. Also during the Qin dynasty they created bureaucracy in which they had bureaucrats which were basically worker of the state put in place by the emperor. After the Qin came the Han dynasty with their ruler Han Wudi. During this time civil service exams were created and the adoption of Confucianism. The Han adopted Confucianism because it was very organized educational branch in which they could bring people for the bureaucracy. They then began testing the officials through the civil service exams to make sure they were educated well and understood the Confucian ideas.
When Alexander the Great of the Macedonian empire created a power vacuum in India this allowed the Muaryan empire to unify India for the first time. Under the rule of Ashoka he kept the bureaucracy created by this grandfather Chandragupta, but put in place a system of law across his empire known as the Edicts of Ashoka. These rules brought cohesion and legal consistency across the empire, as the Code of Hammurabi did for the Babylonians. Under Ashoka's rule the empire expanded and the bureaucracy became more organized. He created central organizations to ensure that his edicts and policies were carried out across his empire. The Mauryan empire fell apart when Ashoka died. After a time of chaos, and many regional kingdoms the Gupta Dynasty emerged putting India under centralized rule again. Even though they didn't put in place a bureaucracy they put the power in the hands of the local leaders. This type of rule had a catch as the country remained fragmented under the lack of a centralized government.
B. In order to make these new governments run as they wanted, the rulers issued standardized currency, used diplomacy, developed supply lines, built defensive systems, built roads, and strengthened military.Put in place was the strategy of diplomacy, which is the negotiation with allies and enemies. Also used was the method of tributes which Emperor Samudragupta of the Gupta Dynasty sued to bring stability to the empire. What tributes were was after defeating other kingdoms he would allow the king of that empire to rule after he paid the Gupta empire a price.
Supply lines were put in place to help an army move while provide food. Normally supply trains of animals and carts would carry the grain and water needed for the army but, there was a risk of barley any paved roads and the animals also required grain to eat. For this reason Alexander the Great limited pack animals to horses and camels and got rid of the carts.
Walls, roads, and forts were constructed in every empire either as a line of defense or as a way of trade or communication. Probably most famous of all walls was the Great Wall of China constructed during he Qin Dynasty to protect them from nomadic tribes. The walls had to manned with a force of man and along these walls were fortifications, and fortresses were also along empires in which any opposing force had to take on the fortress first to get to the empire and the army. Also because of the sizes of these empires they built roads which facilitated trade, travel, ad also helped move armies across the empire.
Armies were needed in each of the empires and many had a powerful military force. In the Han dynasty the army was basically soldiers taken from the civilian population. officers in the Han army had careers and moved up in the ranks by demonstrating knowledge of classic military texts. Unlike the Han army the Roman army expanded their army by organizing communities in Italy in a system that held men in reserve for the army.
Payment was difficult throughout empires where different methods were used. In the best interest of trade the Gupta empire commissioned coins to help transactions of payment and to make it easier to compare the value of goods.
A. To effectively retain authority over the large areas that these empires controlled, the rulers created centralized governments, legal systems and bureaucracies. With the empires expanding their regions are becoming more diverse ruling them became harder. One method put in place was centralized government, which is when the decisions are made by one executive power. This single person or group usually ruled from a capital in the empire. Also in the empires was decentralized government which is what the Gupta empire had and also the Zhou dynasty.This policy allows more control and decision making too be made by local provinces or counties.
After the Zhou dynasty fell China went into the Warring States Period. In this period came the basis for Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism. This period only ended when Qin Shihuangdi of the Qin dynasty made the legalist doctrine, and destroyed regional authority this united China for a short time. Also during the Qin dynasty they created bureaucracy in which they had bureaucrats which were basically worker of the state put in place by the emperor. After the Qin came the Han dynasty with their ruler Han Wudi. During this time civil service exams were created and the adoption of Confucianism. The Han adopted Confucianism because it was very organized educational branch in which they could bring people for the bureaucracy. They then began testing the officials through the civil service exams to make sure they were educated well and understood the Confucian ideas.
When Alexander the Great of the Macedonian empire created a power vacuum in India this allowed the Muaryan empire to unify India for the first time. Under the rule of Ashoka he kept the bureaucracy created by this grandfather Chandragupta, but put in place a system of law across his empire known as the Edicts of Ashoka. These rules brought cohesion and legal consistency across the empire, as the Code of Hammurabi did for the Babylonians. Under Ashoka's rule the empire expanded and the bureaucracy became more organized. He created central organizations to ensure that his edicts and policies were carried out across his empire. The Mauryan empire fell apart when Ashoka died. After a time of chaos, and many regional kingdoms the Gupta Dynasty emerged putting India under centralized rule again. Even though they didn't put in place a bureaucracy they put the power in the hands of the local leaders. This type of rule had a catch as the country remained fragmented under the lack of a centralized government.
B. In order to make these new governments run as they wanted, the rulers issued standardized currency, used diplomacy, developed supply lines, built defensive systems, built roads, and strengthened military.Put in place was the strategy of diplomacy, which is the negotiation with allies and enemies. Also used was the method of tributes which Emperor Samudragupta of the Gupta Dynasty sued to bring stability to the empire. What tributes were was after defeating other kingdoms he would allow the king of that empire to rule after he paid the Gupta empire a price.
Supply lines were put in place to help an army move while provide food. Normally supply trains of animals and carts would carry the grain and water needed for the army but, there was a risk of barley any paved roads and the animals also required grain to eat. For this reason Alexander the Great limited pack animals to horses and camels and got rid of the carts.
Walls, roads, and forts were constructed in every empire either as a line of defense or as a way of trade or communication. Probably most famous of all walls was the Great Wall of China constructed during he Qin Dynasty to protect them from nomadic tribes. The walls had to manned with a force of man and along these walls were fortifications, and fortresses were also along empires in which any opposing force had to take on the fortress first to get to the empire and the army. Also because of the sizes of these empires they built roads which facilitated trade, travel, ad also helped move armies across the empire.
Armies were needed in each of the empires and many had a powerful military force. In the Han dynasty the army was basically soldiers taken from the civilian population. officers in the Han army had careers and moved up in the ranks by demonstrating knowledge of classic military texts. Unlike the Han army the Roman army expanded their army by organizing communities in Italy in a system that held men in reserve for the army.
Payment was difficult throughout empires where different methods were used. In the best interest of trade the Gupta empire commissioned coins to help transactions of payment and to make it easier to compare the value of goods.
The Qin Dynasty was in place during the period of the warring states. Eventually the legalist doctrine ended the warring states period and brought china in unity.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Satraps
The satraps were put in place in the Achaemenid empire by Darius to govern the large area he had acquired. The satraps governed the satrapies which were administrative and taxation districts.
2. Legalism
The legalists promoted a ruthless approach to govern a society. They didn't care about morals they were only interested in expanding the state no matter the cost. the legalists promoted agriculture, the military, and harsh punishments for minor crimes. Even though this policy was not very popular it put an end to the Warring States Period of China.
3. Centralized Government
This policy is usually the work of one leader or a small group possessing the authority over all the regions of an empire. They usually rule from one point such as a capital.
4. Bureaucracy
Bureaucrats are the employees of the empire in which their position in society, unlike nobles or aristocrats, does not rely on a source of wealth. Members of the bureaucracy only had positions and power as granted by the emperor.
5. Twelve Tables
This was a basic law code for citizens in Rome. This was a law that jurist worked on to appeal to all people under Roman rule. The laws granted the equality of citizens in court. For example there was the law of you are innocent until proven guilty.
Evidence
"Soon after his rise to power, Darius began to centralize his administration" (Bently 162). "Like their Mesopotamian predecessors the Achaemenids appointed governors to serve as agents of the central administration and oversee affairs in the various regions. Darius dived his realm into twenty-three satrapies, administrative and taxation districts governed by satraps" (Bently 162-163).
These quotes say that the administration used by Darius was centralized but also borrowed from previous societies. These governmental techniques were put in place to help the Persians to govern their vast empire.
These quotes say that the administration used by Darius was centralized but also borrowed from previous societies. These governmental techniques were put in place to help the Persians to govern their vast empire.
During the classical period governments promoted military power by a variety of techniques including building fortification and defensive walls.
2.2-III
As empires expanded social hierarchies or social classes emerged.
A. Every empire had a capital which served as center of trade, religious ceremonies, and political administration. Capital cities, were sometimes monuments to the power of the state and other time they were used as centers of trade and politics. The buildings of Persepolis and Rome displayed the power of the Persian and Roman empires. Also trade centers such as, Chang'an, the capital of China were very important in the development of the empire.
B. Each empire had their own social structure such as that of the caste system. The caste system evolved in China in order to meet its growing population. Later castes were divided into sub-groups or jati. Jati formed their own courts which the society had their own rules in the lack of central government.
C. The societies had to put in place methods to ensure the production of agriculture and the keeping of the social hierarchy. The most common method was slavery. Slave basically made up 1/3 of the population and they were put in place to do tasks either because they were asked by the government or they had to because of their debts. Another common method of labor was the corvée system which was labor to pay of taxes and many projects were completed due to this system.
D. Throughout each of these empires patriarchy continued in every family. As in previous empires there still was a strong sense of patriarchy. In some societies it was very harsh but in other women could advance in the society a little by practicing business.
A. Every empire had a capital which served as center of trade, religious ceremonies, and political administration. Capital cities, were sometimes monuments to the power of the state and other time they were used as centers of trade and politics. The buildings of Persepolis and Rome displayed the power of the Persian and Roman empires. Also trade centers such as, Chang'an, the capital of China were very important in the development of the empire.
B. Each empire had their own social structure such as that of the caste system. The caste system evolved in China in order to meet its growing population. Later castes were divided into sub-groups or jati. Jati formed their own courts which the society had their own rules in the lack of central government.
C. The societies had to put in place methods to ensure the production of agriculture and the keeping of the social hierarchy. The most common method was slavery. Slave basically made up 1/3 of the population and they were put in place to do tasks either because they were asked by the government or they had to because of their debts. Another common method of labor was the corvée system which was labor to pay of taxes and many projects were completed due to this system.
D. Throughout each of these empires patriarchy continued in every family. As in previous empires there still was a strong sense of patriarchy. In some societies it was very harsh but in other women could advance in the society a little by practicing business.
This is a map of the Achaemenid Empire. In it you can see Persepolis in which Darius an Achaemenid ruler built a capital on it. Persepolis served as a lavish monument for the empire.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. Caste System
The four main castes of people were the brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (peasants and merchants), and shudras (serfs)
2. Jati
These were guild that functioned as the subcastes. Jati held for the most part the responsibility for keeping social order. They organized courts, and performed services that governments provided in other areas.
3. Tikal
It was a cerimonial center with pyramids, palaces, temples, and smaller settlements. Tikal was a very important political center. It was wealthy, had a large population, and was probably the largest of the small city-kingdoms.
4. Persepolis
Darius of the Achaemenids began to centralize his government, and he built a new capital at Persepolis. He built it to serve as a political center and a monument to Achaemenid rule.
5. Corvée System
Governments required people to provide labor as a payment of tax. Many large projects were completed using the corvée system including the Qin built their defensive wall using it.
Evidence
"After their arrival in India, the Aryans recognized four main castes or classes of people: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (peasants and merchants), and shudras (serfs). Brahmins in particular endorsed this social order, which brought them honor, prestige, and sometimes considerable wealth as well" (Bently 215).
This quote is saying that when migrants moved into India there were four castes or groups that people recognized. These were the social classes and meant everything to the people.
This quote is saying that when migrants moved into India there were four castes or groups that people recognized. These were the social classes and meant everything to the people.
This map shows the Persian empire and it shows the capital of Persepolis. This capital cities were used as a place for trade, religious ceremonies, government, and a show for the empires wealth.
2.2-IV
The different empires such as the Roman, Han, Persian, Mauryan, and Gupta had political, cultural, and administrative problems.
A. As they expanded they had problems which led to their downfall as a reigning power, and this led to formations of new empires. Throughout each empire many focused on the elites and keeping all of the wealth, and land in their hand making them happy. In each society bribery and the policy of greed was used to move up in the social ladder.
B. Many empires were knocked out of power caused by revolts and also by outside invaders. Such as the move of the Huns from central Asia which put them in contact with empires such as the Gupta and pushing more people out of the way to create kingdoms. Causes of the falling of empires include boarder exhaustion and also epidemics. With empires becoming so large the armies had trouble guarding them. Also, epidemics made their way to other societies by trade routes such as the Silk Road and this weakened many empires.
A. As they expanded they had problems which led to their downfall as a reigning power, and this led to formations of new empires. Throughout each empire many focused on the elites and keeping all of the wealth, and land in their hand making them happy. In each society bribery and the policy of greed was used to move up in the social ladder.
B. Many empires were knocked out of power caused by revolts and also by outside invaders. Such as the move of the Huns from central Asia which put them in contact with empires such as the Gupta and pushing more people out of the way to create kingdoms. Causes of the falling of empires include boarder exhaustion and also epidemics. With empires becoming so large the armies had trouble guarding them. Also, epidemics made their way to other societies by trade routes such as the Silk Road and this weakened many empires.
This is a map of the Huns coming out from central Asia invading the empire of many kingdoms. They invaded India disrupting the Gupta Dynasty and then establishing kingdoms through northern and western India.
Vocabulary 1-5
1. White Huns
A nomadic peoples from central Asia. They attempted to conquer the Gupta before, but lost. They tried again and succeeded because of the loss of wealth and resources of the Gupta. The White Huns established kingdoms in northern and western India.
2. Yellow Turbans
They were rebels that wore yellow turbans. These people weakened the Han Dynasty even more during the second and third centuries C.E.
3. Epidemics
Infections and contagious diseases spread along trade routes like the silk road. The result of epidemics were demographic decline and thus empire declined. Sometimes the epidemics resulted in economic and social change, other times it brought imperial collapse.
4. Dissension
Dissension is a lack of harmony or agreement. This may have been a cause of Mayan decline.
5. Debasing
The practice of lowering the value of currency when the quantity of metal in the coin is reduced.
Evidence
"After 1450 B.C.E., however, the wealth of the Minoan society attracted a series of invaders, and by 1100 B.C.E. Crete has fallen under foreign domination" (Bently 233).
This quote is saying that in this society the downfall came when foreign invaders came and attacked the empire. This happened in may of the empire during the classical period.
This quote is saying that in this society the downfall came when foreign invaders came and attacked the empire. This happened in may of the empire during the classical period.
This is a picture of the Sassanid empire. As you can see the Sassanids were next to Arabian Tribes and the Sassanids faced problems from these people. The Arab finally ended the Sassinid empire when they c]killed the last Sassanid ruler.
Primary Documents
1. Herodotus, the Greek historian, wrote a history of the Greco/Persian War. Within his histories, Herodotus included both a geographical description of each of the different states the Persian's conquered and the customs of the people within those states. This document is an excerpt taken from Herodotus' histories. Within the document he tells abouth the Persian people and their customs. He explains how the Persians worshipped Zues and the sun, moon, and stars, and they were quick to adopt customs from other people into their own if they felt they were better than their own. Herodotus also tells us about the army. He tells about how the king would give a gift to the man who had the most children. When the child was born he was taken way from his father and at the age of 5 was taught about war, how to use a bow, and how to ride a horse.
Ancient History Sourcebook:
Herodotus:
On The Customs of the Persians, c. 430 BCE
Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes. Those which Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes were the principal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from which spring all the Perseid kings, is one of their clans. The rest of the Persian tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who are engaged in husbandry; the Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are nomads.
The customs which I know the Persians to observe are the following: they have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine. Their wont, however, is to ascend the summits of the loftiest mountains, and there to offer sacrifice to Zeus, which is the name they give to the whole circuit of the firmament. They likewise offer to the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians Mitra.
To these gods the Persians offer sacrifice in the following manner: they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations; there is no sound of the flute, no putting on of chaplets, no consecrated barley-cake; but the man who wishes to sacrifice brings his victim to a spot of ground which is pure from pollution, and there calls upon the name of the god to whom he intends to offer. It is usual to have the turban encircled with a wreath, most commonly of myrtle. The sacrificer is not allowed to pray for blessings on himself alone, but he prays for the welfare of the king, and of the whole Persian people, among whom he is of necessity included. He cuts the victim in pieces, and having boiled the flesh, he lays it out upon the tenderest herbage that he can find, trefoil especially. When all is ready, one of the Magi comes forward and chants a hymn, which they say recounts the origin of the gods. It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless there is a Magus present. After waiting a short time the sacrificer carries the flesh of the victim away with him, and makes whatever use of it he may please.
Of all the days in the year, the one which they celebrate most is their birthday. It is customary to have the board furnished on that day with an ampler supply than common. The richer Persians cause an ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass to be baked whole and so served up to them: the poorer classes use instead the smaller kinds of cattle. They eat little solid food but abundance of dessert, which is set on table a few dishes at a time; this it is which makes them say that "the Greeks, when they eat, leave off hungry, having nothing worth mention served up to them after the meats; whereas, if they had more put before them, they would not stop eating." They are very fond of wine, and drink it in large quantities. To vomit or obey natural calls in the presence of another is forbidden among them. Such are their customs in these matters.
It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when they are drunk; and then on the morrow, when they are sober, the decision to which they came the night before is put before them by the master of the house in which it was made; and if it is then approved of, they act on it; if not, they set it aside. Sometimes, however, they are sober at their first deliberation, but in this case they always reconsider the matter under the influence of wine. When they meet each other in the streets, you may know if the persons meeting are of equal rank by the following token: if they are, instead of speaking, they kiss each other on the lips. In the case where one is a little inferior to the other, the kiss is given on the cheek; where the difference of rank is great, the inferior prostrates himself upon the ground. Of nations, they honor most their nearest neighbors, whom they esteem next to themselves; those who live beyond these they honor in the second degree; and so with the remainder, the further they are removed, the less the esteem in which they hold them. The reason is that they look upon themselves as very greatly superior in all respects to the rest of mankind, regarding others as approaching to excellence in proportion as they dwell nearer to them; whence it comes to pass that those who are the farthest off must be the most degraded of mankind. Under the dominion of the Medes, the several nations of the empire exercised authority over each other in this order. The Medes were lords over all, and governed the nations upon their borders, who in their turn governed the States beyond, who likewise bore rule over the nations which adjoined on them. And this is the order which the Persians also follow in their distribution of honor; for that people, like the Medes, has a progressive scale of administration and government.
There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes, considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own: and hence, among other novelties, they have learnt unnatural lust from the Greeks. Each of them has several wives, and a still larger number of concubines. Next to prowess in arms, it is regarded as the greatest proof of manly excellence to be the father of many sons. Every year the king sends rich gifts to the man who can show the largest number: for they hold that number is strength. Their sons are carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year, in three things alone---to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth. Until their fifth year they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but pass their lives with the women. This is done that, if the child die young, the father may not be afflicted by its loss.
They hold it unlawful to talk of anything which it is unlawful to do. The most disgraceful thing in the world, they think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies. If a Persian has the leprosy he is not allowed to enter into a city, or to have any dealings with the other Persians; he must, they say, have sinned against the sun. Foreigners attacked by this disorder, are forced to leave the country: even white pigeons are often driven away, as guilty of the same offence. They never defile a river with the secretions of their bodies, nor even wash their hands in one; nor will they allow others to do so, as they have a great reverence for rivers. There is another peculiarity, which the Persians themselves have never noticed, but which has not escaped my observation. Their names, which are expressive of some bodily or mental excellence, all end with the same letter---the letter which is called San by the Dorians, and Sigma by the Ionians. Any one who examines will find that the Persian names, one and all without exception, end with this letter.
Thus much I can declare of the Persians with entire certainty, from my own actual knowledge. There is another custom which is spoken of with reserve, and not openly, concerning their dead. It is said that the body of a male Persian is never buried, until it has been torn either by a dog or a bird of prey. That the Magi have this custom is beyond a doubt, for they practice it without any concealment. The dead bodies are covered with wax, and then buried in the ground.
The Magi are a very peculiar race, different entirely from the Egyptian priests, and indeed from all other men whatsoever. The Egyptian priests make it a point of religion not to kill any live animals except those which they offer in sacrifice. The Magi, on the contrary, kill animals of all kinds with their own hands, excepting dogs and men. They even seem to take a delight in the employment, and kill, as readily as they do other animals, ants and snakes, and such like flying or creeping things. However, since this has always been their custom, let them keep to it. Buying and selling in a marketplace is a custom unknown to the Persians, who never make purchases in open marts, and indeed have not in their whole country a single market-place.
Ancient History Sourcebook:
Herodotus:
On The Customs of the Persians, c. 430 BCE
Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes. Those which Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes were the principal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from which spring all the Perseid kings, is one of their clans. The rest of the Persian tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who are engaged in husbandry; the Daans, the Mardians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are nomads.
The customs which I know the Persians to observe are the following: they have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine. Their wont, however, is to ascend the summits of the loftiest mountains, and there to offer sacrifice to Zeus, which is the name they give to the whole circuit of the firmament. They likewise offer to the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians Mitra.
To these gods the Persians offer sacrifice in the following manner: they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations; there is no sound of the flute, no putting on of chaplets, no consecrated barley-cake; but the man who wishes to sacrifice brings his victim to a spot of ground which is pure from pollution, and there calls upon the name of the god to whom he intends to offer. It is usual to have the turban encircled with a wreath, most commonly of myrtle. The sacrificer is not allowed to pray for blessings on himself alone, but he prays for the welfare of the king, and of the whole Persian people, among whom he is of necessity included. He cuts the victim in pieces, and having boiled the flesh, he lays it out upon the tenderest herbage that he can find, trefoil especially. When all is ready, one of the Magi comes forward and chants a hymn, which they say recounts the origin of the gods. It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless there is a Magus present. After waiting a short time the sacrificer carries the flesh of the victim away with him, and makes whatever use of it he may please.
Of all the days in the year, the one which they celebrate most is their birthday. It is customary to have the board furnished on that day with an ampler supply than common. The richer Persians cause an ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass to be baked whole and so served up to them: the poorer classes use instead the smaller kinds of cattle. They eat little solid food but abundance of dessert, which is set on table a few dishes at a time; this it is which makes them say that "the Greeks, when they eat, leave off hungry, having nothing worth mention served up to them after the meats; whereas, if they had more put before them, they would not stop eating." They are very fond of wine, and drink it in large quantities. To vomit or obey natural calls in the presence of another is forbidden among them. Such are their customs in these matters.
It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when they are drunk; and then on the morrow, when they are sober, the decision to which they came the night before is put before them by the master of the house in which it was made; and if it is then approved of, they act on it; if not, they set it aside. Sometimes, however, they are sober at their first deliberation, but in this case they always reconsider the matter under the influence of wine. When they meet each other in the streets, you may know if the persons meeting are of equal rank by the following token: if they are, instead of speaking, they kiss each other on the lips. In the case where one is a little inferior to the other, the kiss is given on the cheek; where the difference of rank is great, the inferior prostrates himself upon the ground. Of nations, they honor most their nearest neighbors, whom they esteem next to themselves; those who live beyond these they honor in the second degree; and so with the remainder, the further they are removed, the less the esteem in which they hold them. The reason is that they look upon themselves as very greatly superior in all respects to the rest of mankind, regarding others as approaching to excellence in proportion as they dwell nearer to them; whence it comes to pass that those who are the farthest off must be the most degraded of mankind. Under the dominion of the Medes, the several nations of the empire exercised authority over each other in this order. The Medes were lords over all, and governed the nations upon their borders, who in their turn governed the States beyond, who likewise bore rule over the nations which adjoined on them. And this is the order which the Persians also follow in their distribution of honor; for that people, like the Medes, has a progressive scale of administration and government.
There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes, considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own: and hence, among other novelties, they have learnt unnatural lust from the Greeks. Each of them has several wives, and a still larger number of concubines. Next to prowess in arms, it is regarded as the greatest proof of manly excellence to be the father of many sons. Every year the king sends rich gifts to the man who can show the largest number: for they hold that number is strength. Their sons are carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year, in three things alone---to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth. Until their fifth year they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but pass their lives with the women. This is done that, if the child die young, the father may not be afflicted by its loss.
They hold it unlawful to talk of anything which it is unlawful to do. The most disgraceful thing in the world, they think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies. If a Persian has the leprosy he is not allowed to enter into a city, or to have any dealings with the other Persians; he must, they say, have sinned against the sun. Foreigners attacked by this disorder, are forced to leave the country: even white pigeons are often driven away, as guilty of the same offence. They never defile a river with the secretions of their bodies, nor even wash their hands in one; nor will they allow others to do so, as they have a great reverence for rivers. There is another peculiarity, which the Persians themselves have never noticed, but which has not escaped my observation. Their names, which are expressive of some bodily or mental excellence, all end with the same letter---the letter which is called San by the Dorians, and Sigma by the Ionians. Any one who examines will find that the Persian names, one and all without exception, end with this letter.
Thus much I can declare of the Persians with entire certainty, from my own actual knowledge. There is another custom which is spoken of with reserve, and not openly, concerning their dead. It is said that the body of a male Persian is never buried, until it has been torn either by a dog or a bird of prey. That the Magi have this custom is beyond a doubt, for they practice it without any concealment. The dead bodies are covered with wax, and then buried in the ground.
The Magi are a very peculiar race, different entirely from the Egyptian priests, and indeed from all other men whatsoever. The Egyptian priests make it a point of religion not to kill any live animals except those which they offer in sacrifice. The Magi, on the contrary, kill animals of all kinds with their own hands, excepting dogs and men. They even seem to take a delight in the employment, and kill, as readily as they do other animals, ants and snakes, and such like flying or creeping things. However, since this has always been their custom, let them keep to it. Buying and selling in a marketplace is a custom unknown to the Persians, who never make purchases in open marts, and indeed have not in their whole country a single market-place.
2. Plautus a Roman playwright gave us insight into how the average slave was treated in the roman household. in his play called Pseudolus, he tells a story of a master and his treatment of his slaves. It is believed that Plautus gives us an accurate portrayal of how slaves were treated within the Roman empire. The empire relied on the slaves to build in the city.
The Conduct and Treatment of Slaves.
[Davis Introduction]:
A Roman playwright, Plautus, writing about the time of the end of the Second Punic War (201 B.C.), gives this picture of an inconsiderate master, and the kind of treatment his slaves were likely to get. Very probably conditions grew worse rather than better for the average slave household, for at least two centuries. As the Romans grew in wealth and the show of culture they did not grow in humanity.
Plautus, Pseudolus, Act. I, Sc. 2.
[Ballio, a captious slave owner, is giving orders to his servants.]
Ballio: Get out, come, out with you, you rascals; kept at a loss, and bought at a loss. Not one of you dreams minding your business, or being a bit of use to me, unless I carry on thus! [He strikes his whip around on all of them.] Never did I see men more like asses than you! Why, your ribs are hardened with the stripes. If one flogs you, he hurts himself the most: [Aside.] Regular whipping posts are they all, and all they do is to pilfer, purloin, prig, plunder, drink, eat, and abscond! Oh! they look decent enough; but they're cheats in their conduct.
[Addressing the slaves again.] Now, unless you're all attention, unless you get that sloth and drowsiness out of your breasts and eyes, I'll have your sides so thoroughly marked with thongs that you'll outvie those Campanian coverlets in color, or a regular Alexandrian tapestry, purple-broidered all over with beasts. Yesterday I gave each of you his special job, but you're so worthless, neglectful, stubborn, that I must remind you with a good basting. So you think, I guess, you'll get the better of this whip and of me---by your stout hides! Zounds! But your hides won't prove harder than my good cowhide. [He flourishes it.] Look at this, please! Give heed to this! [He flogs one slave] Well ? Does it hurt ? . . . Now stand all of you here, you race born to be thrashed! Turn your ears this way! Give heed to what I say. You, fellow! that's got the pitcher, fetch the water. Take care the kettle's full instanter. You who's got the ax, look after chopping the wood.
Slave: But this ax's edge is blunted.
Ballio: Well; be it so! And so are you blunted with stripes, but is that any reason why you shouldn't work for me? I order that you clean up the house. You know your business; hurry indoors. [Exit first slave]. Now you [to another slave] smooth the couches. Clean the plate and put in proper order. Take care that when I'm back from the Forum I find things done---all swept, sprinkled, scoured, smoothed, cleaned and set in order. Today's my birthday. You should all set to and celebrate it. Take care---do you hear---to lay the salted bacon, the brawn, the collared neck, and the udder in water. I want to entertain some fine gentlemen in real style, to give the idea that I'm rich. Get indoors, and get these things ready, so there's no delay when the cook comes. I'm going to market to buy what fish is to be had. Boy, you go ahead [to a special valet], I've got to take care that no one cuts off my purse.
How to Manage Farm Slaves
[Davis Introduction]:
Cato the Elder passed as the incarnation of all worldly wisdom among Romans of the second century B.C. The precepts here given were undoubtedly put into effect on his own farms. During the early Republic, when the estates were small, there seems to have been a fair amount of kindly treatment awarded the slaves; as the farms grew larger the whole policy of the masters, by becoming more impersonal, became more brutal. Cato does not advocate deliberate cruelty---he would simply treat the slaves according to cold regulations, like so many expensive cattle.
Cato the Elder, Agriculture, chs. 56-59
Country slaves ought to receive in the winter, when they are at work, four modii [Davis: One modius equals about a quarter bushel] of grain; and four modii and a half during the summer. The superintendent, the housekeeper, the watchman, and the shepherd get three modii; slaves in chains four pounds of bread in winter and five pounds from the time when the work of training the vines ought to begin until the figs have ripened.
Wine for the slaves. After the vintage let them drink from the sour wine for three months. The fourth month let them have a hemina [Davis: about half a pint] per day or two congii and a half [Davis: over seven quarts] per month. During the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth months let them have a sextarius [Davis: about a pint] per day or five congii per month. Finally, in the ninth, tenth, and the eleventh months, let them have three hemina [Davis: three-fourths of a quart] per day, or an amphora [Davis: about six gallons] per month. On the Saturnalia and on Compitalia each man should have a congius [Davis: something under three quarts].
To feed the slaves. Let the olives that drop of themselves be kept so far as possible. Keep too those harvested olives that do not yield much oil, and husband them, for they last a long time. When the olives have been consumed, give out the brine and vinegar. You should distribute to everyone a sextarius of oil per month. A modius of salt apiece is enough for a year.
As for clothes, give out a tunic of three feet and a half, and a cloak once in two years. When you give a tunic or cloak take back the old ones, to make cassocks out of. Once in two years, good shoes should be given.
Winter wine for the slaves. Put in a wooden cask ten parts of must (non-fermented wine) and two parts of very pungent vinegar, and add two parts of boiled wine and fifty of sweet water. With a paddle mix all these thrice per day for five days in succession. Add one forty-eighth of seawater drawn some time earlier. Place the lid on the cask and let it ferment for ten days. This wine will last until the solstice. If any remains after that time, it will make very sharp excellent vinegar.
How a Faithful Slave should Act.
[Davis Introduction]:
What a slave of about 200 A.D. had to do in order to save himself from constant cuffs and stripes is here set forth somewhat humorously, but with a serious undercurrent of grim truth. There was no high motive for a slave to behave himself---simply a fear of cruel punishment if he did not. There might be a hope of ultimate freedom, but that depended entirely on the caprice of the master.
Plautus, Menaechmi, Act V, Sc. 4.
Messenio, a slave, soliloquizes: Well, this is the proof of a good servant: he must take care of his master's business, look after it, arrange it, think about it; when his master is away, take care of it diligently just as much as if his master were present, or be even more careful. He must take more care of his back than his appetite, his legs than his stomach---if he's got a good heart. Just let him think what those good-for-nothings get from their masters---lazy, worthless fellows that they are. Stripes, fetters, the mill, weariness, hunger, bitter cold---fine pay for idleness. That's what I'm mightily afraid of. Surely, then, it's much better to be good than to be bad. I don't mind tongue lashings, but I do hate real floggings. I'd rather eat meal somebody else grinds, than eat what I grind myself. So I just obey what my master bids me; and I execute orders carefully and diligently. My obedience, I think, is such as is most for the profit of my back. And it surely does pay! Let others do just as they think it worth while. I'll be just where I ought to be. If I stick to that, I'll avoid blunders; and I needn't be much afraid if I'm ready for my master, come what may. The time's pretty close when for this service of mine, my master will give his reward.
The Last Great Slave Revolt.
[Davis Introduction]:
In 73 B.C. the "Speaking Tools" - as the Romans called their slaves, especially those upon the great estates of Southern Italy--burst loose in a terrible insurrection [Arkenberg: the third such in fifty years], to quell which taxed the whole power of the government. Despite the sympathy one must have for these slaves and their gallant leader, their success would have been a calamity to civilization. An army of such brutalized wretches could only destroy; they could never have erected a firm and tolerable government. After these outbreaks and the havoc and terror spread by them, the Romans out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before.
Plutarch, Life of Crassus, viii-xi:
The insurrection of the gladiators and the devastation of Italy, commonly called the war of Spartacus, began upon this occasion. One Lentulus Batiates trained up a great many gladiators in Capua, most of them Gauls and Thracians, who, not for any fault by them committed, but simply through the cruelty of their master, were kept in confinement for the object of fighting one with another. Two hundred of these formed a plan to escape, but their plot being discovered, those of them who became aware of it in time to anticipate their master, being seventy-eight, got out of a cook's shop chopping knives and spits, and made their way through the city, and lighting by the way on several wagons that were carrying gladiators' arms to another city, they seized upon them and armed themselves. And seizing upon a defensible place, they chose three captains, of whom Spartacus was chief, a Thracian of one of the nomad tribes, and a man not only of high spirit and valiant, but in understanding, also, and in gentleness, superior to his condition, and more of a Grecian than the people of his country usually are.
First, then, routing those that came out of Capua against them, and thus procuring a quantity of proper soldiers' arms, they gladly threw away their own as barbarous and dishonorable. [Davis: Two praetors who were sent against them with small armies were defeated, while a third general's army was routed and he himself slain.] After many successful skirmishes with Varinus, the praetor himself, in one of which Spartacus took his lictors and his own horse, he began to be great and terrible; but wisely considering that he was not to expect to match the force of the empire, he marched his army towards the Alps, intending, when he had passed them, that every man should go to his own home, some to Thrace, some to Gaul. But they, grown confident in their numbers, and puffed up with their success, would give no obedience to him, but went about and ravaged Italy; so that now the Senate was not only moved at the indignity and baseness, both of the enemy and of the insurrection, but, looking upon it as a matter of alarm and of dangerous consequence, sent out both the consuls to it, as to a great and difficult enterprise. The consul Gellius, falling suddenly upon a party of Germans, who through contempt and confidence had straggled from Spartacus, cut them all to pieces. But when Lentulus with a large army besieged Spartacus, he sallied out upon him, and, joining battle, defeated his chief officers, and captured all his baggage. As he made towards the Alps, Cassius, who was praetor of that part of Gaul that lies about the Po, met him with ten thousand men, but being overcome in battle, he had much ado to escape himself, with the loss of a great many of his men.
[Davis: The Senate in disgust now sent Crassus against the rebels. Spartacus, however, defeated Mummius, Crassus's lieutenant, and the general had to restore discipline among the demoralized Romans by executing fifty who had begun the flight; later he advanced again] . . . but Spartacus retreated through Lucania toward the sea, and in the straits, meeting with some Cilician pirate ships, he had thoughts of attempting Sicily, where, by landing two thousand men, he hoped to kindle anew the war of the slaves, which was but lately extinguished, and seemed to need but a little fuel to set it burning again. But after the pirates had struck a bargain with him, and received his earnest, they deceived him and sailed away. He thereupon retired again from the sea, and established his army in the peninsula of Rhegium. [Davis: Here Crassus tried to blockade him. Spartacus escaped with part of his army to Lucania, but some of Spartacus' followers mutinied, and left him. This division of malcontents was soon destroyed by Crassus.]
Spartacus, after this discomfiture, retired to the mountains of Petelia, but Quintius, one of Crassus's officers, and Scrofula, the quaestor, pursued and overtook him. But when Spartacus rallied and faced them, they were utterly routed and fled, and had much ado to carry off their quaestor, who was wounded. This success, however, ruined Spartacus, because it encouraged the slaves, who now disdained any longer to avoid fighting, or to obey their officers, but as they were upon their march, they came to them with their swords in their hand, and compelled them to lead them back again through Lucania, against the Romans, the very thing which Crassus was eager for. For news was already brought that Pompey [Davis: Crassus' rival for military glory] was at hand; and people began to talk openly that the honor of this war was reserved for him, who would come and at once oblige the enemy to fight and put an end to the war. Crassus, therefore, eager to fight a decisive battle, encamped very near the enemy, and began to make lines of circumvallation; but the slaves made a sally, and attacked the pioneers. As fresh supplies came in on either side, Spartacus, seeing there was no avoiding it, set all his army in array, and when his horse was brought him, he drew out his sword and killed him, saying, if he got the day, he should have a great many better horses of the enemies, and if he lost it, he should have no need of this. And so making directly towards Crassus himself, through the midst of arms and wounds, he missed him, but slew two centurions that fell upon him together. At last, being deserted by those that were about him, he himself stood his ground, and, surrounded by the enemy, bravely defending himself, was cut to pieces.
The Conduct and Treatment of Slaves.
[Davis Introduction]:
A Roman playwright, Plautus, writing about the time of the end of the Second Punic War (201 B.C.), gives this picture of an inconsiderate master, and the kind of treatment his slaves were likely to get. Very probably conditions grew worse rather than better for the average slave household, for at least two centuries. As the Romans grew in wealth and the show of culture they did not grow in humanity.
Plautus, Pseudolus, Act. I, Sc. 2.
[Ballio, a captious slave owner, is giving orders to his servants.]
Ballio: Get out, come, out with you, you rascals; kept at a loss, and bought at a loss. Not one of you dreams minding your business, or being a bit of use to me, unless I carry on thus! [He strikes his whip around on all of them.] Never did I see men more like asses than you! Why, your ribs are hardened with the stripes. If one flogs you, he hurts himself the most: [Aside.] Regular whipping posts are they all, and all they do is to pilfer, purloin, prig, plunder, drink, eat, and abscond! Oh! they look decent enough; but they're cheats in their conduct.
[Addressing the slaves again.] Now, unless you're all attention, unless you get that sloth and drowsiness out of your breasts and eyes, I'll have your sides so thoroughly marked with thongs that you'll outvie those Campanian coverlets in color, or a regular Alexandrian tapestry, purple-broidered all over with beasts. Yesterday I gave each of you his special job, but you're so worthless, neglectful, stubborn, that I must remind you with a good basting. So you think, I guess, you'll get the better of this whip and of me---by your stout hides! Zounds! But your hides won't prove harder than my good cowhide. [He flourishes it.] Look at this, please! Give heed to this! [He flogs one slave] Well ? Does it hurt ? . . . Now stand all of you here, you race born to be thrashed! Turn your ears this way! Give heed to what I say. You, fellow! that's got the pitcher, fetch the water. Take care the kettle's full instanter. You who's got the ax, look after chopping the wood.
Slave: But this ax's edge is blunted.
Ballio: Well; be it so! And so are you blunted with stripes, but is that any reason why you shouldn't work for me? I order that you clean up the house. You know your business; hurry indoors. [Exit first slave]. Now you [to another slave] smooth the couches. Clean the plate and put in proper order. Take care that when I'm back from the Forum I find things done---all swept, sprinkled, scoured, smoothed, cleaned and set in order. Today's my birthday. You should all set to and celebrate it. Take care---do you hear---to lay the salted bacon, the brawn, the collared neck, and the udder in water. I want to entertain some fine gentlemen in real style, to give the idea that I'm rich. Get indoors, and get these things ready, so there's no delay when the cook comes. I'm going to market to buy what fish is to be had. Boy, you go ahead [to a special valet], I've got to take care that no one cuts off my purse.
How to Manage Farm Slaves
[Davis Introduction]:
Cato the Elder passed as the incarnation of all worldly wisdom among Romans of the second century B.C. The precepts here given were undoubtedly put into effect on his own farms. During the early Republic, when the estates were small, there seems to have been a fair amount of kindly treatment awarded the slaves; as the farms grew larger the whole policy of the masters, by becoming more impersonal, became more brutal. Cato does not advocate deliberate cruelty---he would simply treat the slaves according to cold regulations, like so many expensive cattle.
Cato the Elder, Agriculture, chs. 56-59
Country slaves ought to receive in the winter, when they are at work, four modii [Davis: One modius equals about a quarter bushel] of grain; and four modii and a half during the summer. The superintendent, the housekeeper, the watchman, and the shepherd get three modii; slaves in chains four pounds of bread in winter and five pounds from the time when the work of training the vines ought to begin until the figs have ripened.
Wine for the slaves. After the vintage let them drink from the sour wine for three months. The fourth month let them have a hemina [Davis: about half a pint] per day or two congii and a half [Davis: over seven quarts] per month. During the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth months let them have a sextarius [Davis: about a pint] per day or five congii per month. Finally, in the ninth, tenth, and the eleventh months, let them have three hemina [Davis: three-fourths of a quart] per day, or an amphora [Davis: about six gallons] per month. On the Saturnalia and on Compitalia each man should have a congius [Davis: something under three quarts].
To feed the slaves. Let the olives that drop of themselves be kept so far as possible. Keep too those harvested olives that do not yield much oil, and husband them, for they last a long time. When the olives have been consumed, give out the brine and vinegar. You should distribute to everyone a sextarius of oil per month. A modius of salt apiece is enough for a year.
As for clothes, give out a tunic of three feet and a half, and a cloak once in two years. When you give a tunic or cloak take back the old ones, to make cassocks out of. Once in two years, good shoes should be given.
Winter wine for the slaves. Put in a wooden cask ten parts of must (non-fermented wine) and two parts of very pungent vinegar, and add two parts of boiled wine and fifty of sweet water. With a paddle mix all these thrice per day for five days in succession. Add one forty-eighth of seawater drawn some time earlier. Place the lid on the cask and let it ferment for ten days. This wine will last until the solstice. If any remains after that time, it will make very sharp excellent vinegar.
How a Faithful Slave should Act.
[Davis Introduction]:
What a slave of about 200 A.D. had to do in order to save himself from constant cuffs and stripes is here set forth somewhat humorously, but with a serious undercurrent of grim truth. There was no high motive for a slave to behave himself---simply a fear of cruel punishment if he did not. There might be a hope of ultimate freedom, but that depended entirely on the caprice of the master.
Plautus, Menaechmi, Act V, Sc. 4.
Messenio, a slave, soliloquizes: Well, this is the proof of a good servant: he must take care of his master's business, look after it, arrange it, think about it; when his master is away, take care of it diligently just as much as if his master were present, or be even more careful. He must take more care of his back than his appetite, his legs than his stomach---if he's got a good heart. Just let him think what those good-for-nothings get from their masters---lazy, worthless fellows that they are. Stripes, fetters, the mill, weariness, hunger, bitter cold---fine pay for idleness. That's what I'm mightily afraid of. Surely, then, it's much better to be good than to be bad. I don't mind tongue lashings, but I do hate real floggings. I'd rather eat meal somebody else grinds, than eat what I grind myself. So I just obey what my master bids me; and I execute orders carefully and diligently. My obedience, I think, is such as is most for the profit of my back. And it surely does pay! Let others do just as they think it worth while. I'll be just where I ought to be. If I stick to that, I'll avoid blunders; and I needn't be much afraid if I'm ready for my master, come what may. The time's pretty close when for this service of mine, my master will give his reward.
The Last Great Slave Revolt.
[Davis Introduction]:
In 73 B.C. the "Speaking Tools" - as the Romans called their slaves, especially those upon the great estates of Southern Italy--burst loose in a terrible insurrection [Arkenberg: the third such in fifty years], to quell which taxed the whole power of the government. Despite the sympathy one must have for these slaves and their gallant leader, their success would have been a calamity to civilization. An army of such brutalized wretches could only destroy; they could never have erected a firm and tolerable government. After these outbreaks and the havoc and terror spread by them, the Romans out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before.
Plutarch, Life of Crassus, viii-xi:
The insurrection of the gladiators and the devastation of Italy, commonly called the war of Spartacus, began upon this occasion. One Lentulus Batiates trained up a great many gladiators in Capua, most of them Gauls and Thracians, who, not for any fault by them committed, but simply through the cruelty of their master, were kept in confinement for the object of fighting one with another. Two hundred of these formed a plan to escape, but their plot being discovered, those of them who became aware of it in time to anticipate their master, being seventy-eight, got out of a cook's shop chopping knives and spits, and made their way through the city, and lighting by the way on several wagons that were carrying gladiators' arms to another city, they seized upon them and armed themselves. And seizing upon a defensible place, they chose three captains, of whom Spartacus was chief, a Thracian of one of the nomad tribes, and a man not only of high spirit and valiant, but in understanding, also, and in gentleness, superior to his condition, and more of a Grecian than the people of his country usually are.
First, then, routing those that came out of Capua against them, and thus procuring a quantity of proper soldiers' arms, they gladly threw away their own as barbarous and dishonorable. [Davis: Two praetors who were sent against them with small armies were defeated, while a third general's army was routed and he himself slain.] After many successful skirmishes with Varinus, the praetor himself, in one of which Spartacus took his lictors and his own horse, he began to be great and terrible; but wisely considering that he was not to expect to match the force of the empire, he marched his army towards the Alps, intending, when he had passed them, that every man should go to his own home, some to Thrace, some to Gaul. But they, grown confident in their numbers, and puffed up with their success, would give no obedience to him, but went about and ravaged Italy; so that now the Senate was not only moved at the indignity and baseness, both of the enemy and of the insurrection, but, looking upon it as a matter of alarm and of dangerous consequence, sent out both the consuls to it, as to a great and difficult enterprise. The consul Gellius, falling suddenly upon a party of Germans, who through contempt and confidence had straggled from Spartacus, cut them all to pieces. But when Lentulus with a large army besieged Spartacus, he sallied out upon him, and, joining battle, defeated his chief officers, and captured all his baggage. As he made towards the Alps, Cassius, who was praetor of that part of Gaul that lies about the Po, met him with ten thousand men, but being overcome in battle, he had much ado to escape himself, with the loss of a great many of his men.
[Davis: The Senate in disgust now sent Crassus against the rebels. Spartacus, however, defeated Mummius, Crassus's lieutenant, and the general had to restore discipline among the demoralized Romans by executing fifty who had begun the flight; later he advanced again] . . . but Spartacus retreated through Lucania toward the sea, and in the straits, meeting with some Cilician pirate ships, he had thoughts of attempting Sicily, where, by landing two thousand men, he hoped to kindle anew the war of the slaves, which was but lately extinguished, and seemed to need but a little fuel to set it burning again. But after the pirates had struck a bargain with him, and received his earnest, they deceived him and sailed away. He thereupon retired again from the sea, and established his army in the peninsula of Rhegium. [Davis: Here Crassus tried to blockade him. Spartacus escaped with part of his army to Lucania, but some of Spartacus' followers mutinied, and left him. This division of malcontents was soon destroyed by Crassus.]
Spartacus, after this discomfiture, retired to the mountains of Petelia, but Quintius, one of Crassus's officers, and Scrofula, the quaestor, pursued and overtook him. But when Spartacus rallied and faced them, they were utterly routed and fled, and had much ado to carry off their quaestor, who was wounded. This success, however, ruined Spartacus, because it encouraged the slaves, who now disdained any longer to avoid fighting, or to obey their officers, but as they were upon their march, they came to them with their swords in their hand, and compelled them to lead them back again through Lucania, against the Romans, the very thing which Crassus was eager for. For news was already brought that Pompey [Davis: Crassus' rival for military glory] was at hand; and people began to talk openly that the honor of this war was reserved for him, who would come and at once oblige the enemy to fight and put an end to the war. Crassus, therefore, eager to fight a decisive battle, encamped very near the enemy, and began to make lines of circumvallation; but the slaves made a sally, and attacked the pioneers. As fresh supplies came in on either side, Spartacus, seeing there was no avoiding it, set all his army in array, and when his horse was brought him, he drew out his sword and killed him, saying, if he got the day, he should have a great many better horses of the enemies, and if he lost it, he should have no need of this. And so making directly towards Crassus himself, through the midst of arms and wounds, he missed him, but slew two centurions that fell upon him together. At last, being deserted by those that were about him, he himself stood his ground, and, surrounded by the enemy, bravely defending himself, was cut to pieces.
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